Although Medina had a scattered urban structure, the relationships between Muslims and nonMuslims, particularly in areas such as trade and agriculture, were inevitable. The Prophet Muhammad (saw), as with all matters, was highly sensitive to the potential negative consequences of these interactions. He utilized the mosque also as a center of education and a space for fostering coexistence. He believed that it was essential to strengthen the spirit of unity swiftly in preparation for a possible Quraysh attack.
Over time, the atmosphere in Medina began to shift, with an Islamic identity gradually coming to dominate. The Prophet Muhammad (saw), leveraging the positive environment fostered by the citizenship agreement, would occasionally visit all the non-Muslim tribes in Medina, inviting them to embrace Islam. Some of the Arabs and Jews responded positively to his invitation and embraced Islam. This development gradually added a political dimension to his position.
In Medina, the first Jew to accept Islam was Abd Allah ibn Salam, from the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa. He was a Jewish scholar well-versed in the Torah and the Talmud, the commentary on the Torah. Originally named Husayn, the Prophet Muhammad (saw) changed his name to Abd Allah. According to Abd Allah ibn Salam’s account, he had learned of the prophethood of Muhammad (saw) during his period in Mecca and felt great joy because he had read about the Prophet’s name, attributes, and the time of his arrival in his own religious texts. He believed that Muhammad (saw) was the brother of Musa ibn ‘Imran and was sent with the same truth that Musa had been sent with. However, he had kept this belief to himself until he felt the time was right to publicly declare his faith. In a predominantly Jewish setting, he stood up and addressed his community, “O Jewish community, fear Allah. Accept the truth that has come to you. I swear by Allah, you know that this man is the Messenger of Allah. His name and attributes are in your Torah. I bear witness that he is the Messenger of Allah. I believe in him, I confirm him, and I recognize him.” With these words, Abd Allah ibn Salam openly embraced Islam, making his faith known to all.
Abd Allah ibn Salam’s conversion to Islam greatly angered the Jews of Medina. As a respected religious scholar and authority among them, they had never expected such a decision from him. Previously, they had regarded him as a trusted guide and a source of knowledge. However, upon learning that he had embraced Islam, their attitude changed drastically, and they began to speak negatively about him, contradicting their earlier respect and acknowledgment of his status.
Despite all the accusations and slanders from his Jewish compatriots, Abd Allah ibn Salam’s true faith was affirmed through divine revelation: “Ask (them, O Prophet)’, ‘Consider if this (Qur’an) is (truly) from Allah and you deny it, and a witness from the Children of Israel attests to it and then believes, whereas you act arrogantly. Surely Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.” (Ahqaf, 46:10)
After embracing Islam, Abd Allah ibn Salam invited his close family to follow his example and embrace Islam as well. As a result of his efforts, his entire household, including his paternal aunt who initially opposed him, chose to accept Islam.
Islam was no longer, as it had been in Mecca, the religion of the weak and oppressed. In Medina, Muslims were on their way to becoming a dominant force, establishing themselves not only as a social presence but also as a political power. Consequently, the Prophet Muhammad’s role evolved, and in addition to his role as a prophet, he also assumed a political identity.
A declaration: the adhan
As the Prophet Muhammad’s influence expanded in Medina, he took steps to establish distinguishing features for Muslims within the community. One notable example occurred in the second year of the hijrah when the mosque in Medina increasingly became the hub of social and religious life. A pressing issue at the time was how to inform Muslims of the prayer times in a manner that would unify and engage the community. In addressing this, the Prophet sought an innovative solution that not only resolved the practical need but also strengthened the social fabric and identity of the Muslim community.
Although prayer had been made obligatory during the Meccan period, no method had been devised to announce the prayer times until the Prophet Muhammad’s migration to Medina. The conditions in Mecca at the time were not conducive to such a practice. However, in Medina, Muslims were able to openly practice their faith, and their numbers were steadily increasing. Yet, those who arrived early for prayer had to wait for the prayer time to begin, which caused them to be delayed in their daily tasks, while those who arrived late were upset about missing the congregation. For a time, the call to prayer was made in the streets by proclaiming the phrase “as-salah, as-salah” (prayer! prayer!). However, this method proved insufficient to effectively gather the community.
The Prophet Muhammad, in consultation with his companions, considered various ways to announce prayer times and ensure that Muslims could gather for congregational prayers. Suggestions included sounding a bell, blowing a horn, lighting a fire, or raising a flag. However, the Prophet rejected these proposals, as each was associated with the customs of other religious communities: the bell with the Christians, the horn with the Jews, the fire with Magians, and raising a flag would not be helpful for those who were asleep or distracted. After various opinions were presented, no final decision was initially reached. However, the Prophet Muhammad and the Muslims’ daily interactions and debates with the polytheists and Jews in the city, particularly concerning beliefs in God and prophethood, seemed to make a vocal proclamation necessary, one that would serve both as a call to prayer and as a challenge in their ongoing discourse. Especially in the context of their discussions against idol worship, the oneness of Allah and His supreme greatness, as well as the prophethood of Muhammad, should be loudly emphasized.
The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslims he consulted continued to deliberate on statements and expressions that could encapsulate the essence of the call to prayer. They even considered phrases concise enough that could be recited in a single breath. According to some reports, the following day, Abdullah ibn Zayd and Umar ibn al-Khattab informed the Prophet that certain words had been taught to them in their dreams, suggesting these could be served for the call to prayer (Bukhari, Adhan, 1; Muslim, Salah, 1).
Thus, the Prophet Muhammad explained the order and repetition of these words to Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi and instructed him to recite them from an elevated place. Bilal then climbed to the top of a tall house belonging to a woman from the Banu Najjar and recited these words for the first time. This call, which later came to be known as the “adhan,” was thus shared with all Muslims. Shortly thereafter, a raised platform was built on the qiblah side of the Masjid al-Nabawi for the adhan to be delivered. The words of the adhan, recited from this spot at every prayer time, quickly became entrenched in the hearts and minds of Muslims.
The words of the adhan succinctly encapsulated the entire purpose and essence of Islam. Particularly, the phrase Allahu Akbar, meaning “Allah is the Greatest”, likely served as a response to the frequent verbal disputes in daily life, countering the efforts of the polytheists to glorify their idols. Expressing the sentiments of the Muslims, the words of the adhan were now embraced in Medina as the hallmark, motto, and slogan of Islam. It was an open and resounding declaration of faith.
