As the calendars recorded the 10th century, a child was born near the city of Kath, within the presentday borders of Uzbekistan. Little did anyone know that this child, through his unparalleled works, would propel Islamic civilization to its prime in the 11th century. By demonstrating an insatiable thirst for knowledge in a wide range of subjects this child, al-Biruni, had already captured the attention of those around him at a very young age. From a young age, al-Biruni came under the patronage of the Khwarazmian dynasty and received a royal court education. The renowned mathematician Abu Nasr Ibn Iraq, whom he revered as his mentor, was the main figure who had a significant influence on him in his bringing up.
A Muslim genius
Al-Biruni is a perfect example of an Islamic scholar in every aspect. He had a versatile field of study in accordance with his time. We can describe him as a philosopher, traveler, historian, geographer, linguist, mathematician, astronomer, poet, and physicist.
In contrast to the present era, during the 10th and 11th centuries, it was common for accomplished scholars to engage in research and produce works across multiple fields of study. He conducted research in all these fields of study and produced important works. In this regard, al-Biruni would become a revered Muslim scholar, even for Leonardo da Vinci, centuries later in Europe.
In the palace of Mahmud of Ghazni
The pivotal event that shaped al-Biruni’s life was his recognition by the Turkish ruler Mahmud of Ghazni. The great ruler requests that he be informed of the prominent poets and philosophers in Khwarazm. Upon hearing their names, the ruler summons renowned scholars like al-Biruni and Ibn Sina to his court. In response to the request of the Ghaznavid sultan, the Khwarazmian ruler instructed the scholars to depart for the Ghaznavid court. Accordingly, al-Biruni settled in the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, the conqueror of India, and with this accompanied him on his expeditions to India.
An intriguing incident occurred during al-Biruni’s time at the Ghaznavid court. When an envoy from a country in the north of Asia told Mahmud of Ghazni that he had not seen that the sun set for months, on hearing such a thing, the sultan initially thought that the envoy was mocking him and was about to order an imprisonment when al-Biruni came to the rescue and saved the envoy by explaining to Mahmud of Ghazni that this incident could be in fact, true.
Indian lands
This incident opened new doors for al-Biruni as now he was to join Mahmud of Ghazni’s expeditions to India. Al-Biruni embarked on this journey to explore the language, customs, and traditions of this land. Upon his return from India, he wrote down his observations and research, and in 1030 he published his masterpiece, titled Tahqiq al-Hind. In his magnum opus, al-Biruni dedicated forty chapters to Indian astronomical studies and eleven chapters to Indian religion. Al-Biruni engaged in a comparative analysis of the philosophy of the Hindu sacred text, “the Vedas”, with the views of Sufi mystics and compared the works of Indian thinkers to those of Greek philosophers.
In his work, he made significant analyses, such as the fact that India never produced a Socrates-like figure due to the influence of mythology on Indian thought. Despite this critique, he undertook an endeavor in the scientific realm by translating numerous Sanskrit works from ancient India into Arabic.
Another important work of al-Biruni is al-Athar al-Baqiyah. This work is a comprehensive examination of the calendars and festivals of Iran, Syria, Greece, Judaism, Christian Saba, and Arabia and written in an objective point of view. While preparing this work, al-Biruni worked as a true scholar, devoted himself to research, and scientifically analyzed various texts and traditions, including the Gospel.
Master of mathematics and astronomy
Al-Biruni also translated Euclid’s ancient Greek civilization works “Element” and Ptolemy’s into Sanskrit, facilitating the exchange of scientific knowledge between civilizations. Al-Biruni was a polymath who delved into virtually every field of knowledge in his era. However, his most notable contribution was undoubtedly in the realm of mathematics, particularly his groundbreaking work on Indian numerals. In addition to this, he also wrote works on astrolabes, planispheres and spheres which showed the movements of the stars, that were then used in the astronomical studies.
Al-Biruni continued to be shown the same respect at the Ghaznavid court during the reign of Sultan Mas‘ud, the son of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, who ascended to the throne after his father’s passing. He prepared astronomical tables for Sultan Mas‘ud. In recognition of this valuable work, Sultan Mas‘ud bestowed precious gifts upon al-Biruni. However, the great scholar would often take only what he needed and return the rest to the treasury.
Long before the Westerners
While its expression was prohibited by the Catholic Church in Europe at the time, al-Biruni, as a Muslim scholar, was aware of and articulated a scientific truth in his works: the roundness of the Earth. Indeed, this alone is a highly significant point for determining the state of science in the Islamic Middle Ages. He was also the first to articulate the idea of a force that pulls everything towards the center of the Earth. Centuries would have to pass before Isaac Newton would articulate this concept in Europe.
Again, al-Biruni, as a Muslim scholar, also argued that astronomical data would still be accurate if it were assumed that the Earth rotates on its axis once a day and around the Sun once a year. In line with these observations, he drew attention to the possibility that the Indus River Valley was once a seabed, and he studied various rocks from the perspective of nature, medicine, and commerce.
In addition to all this, al-Biruni conducted research on stones, determined the specific gravity of eighteen precious stones, and reached the conclusion that the specific gravity of an object is equal to the volume of water it overflows.
In his mathematical work, he developed a method for doubling a number continuously without the need for repeated additions. It was al-Biruni himself who introduced the proof of theorems to geometry.
Furthermore, in his astronomical encyclopedia, he authored summaries of geography and mathematics. Utilizing the principle of hydrostatics, he provided a scientific explanation for the functioning of springs and artesian wells. With his contributions to the natural sciences, al-Biruni was also a prominent researcher in the field of social sciences. For instance, he delved into the history of the Ghaznavids, Sabuktigin, and Khwarazm and wrote a book about them.
This Muslim scholar, who dedicated his life to knowledge, never gave up on research until his last moments. Even shortly before his passing, while ill and well into his eighties, he discussed scholarly matters with an old friend who came to visit him. His scholarly endeavors, spanning a lifetime, only came to an end when he breathed his last in the city of Ghazni.
